ࡱ> 7 wbjbjUU "H7|7|9l    ".".".8Z.T. pjt//"///14g5piiiiiii$k nj 5o1"155j7H//*j7H7H7H5X8/ /i7H5i7Hz7HId ;g// c )"./Ee;g@j0pjen%Gn;g7H  Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Participatory Irrigation Management January 20 and 21, 2006 A two-day Regional Workshop on Participatory Irrigation Management was organised by Development Support Centre (DSC) at Ahmedabad on January 2021, 2006. The purpose of the workshop was to discuss and review Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. This attempt is expected to serve as a model for more such reviews in other states that would provide feedback to the policy makers as to how PIM is actually working in the field. The schedule of the workshop is given in Annexure I. This document on the proceedings falls into four parts. Part 1 presents opening remarks and an overview of PIM in the country. Part 2 discusses specifically the status of PIM in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Emerging issues and recommendations from the group discussions are given at length in Part 3. Part 4 sums up the proceedings. Part 1: Inaugural Session and Overview of PIM Day I, January 20, 2006 Mr. Sachin Oza, Executive Director, DSC welcomed the participants and introduced Prof. Kirit Parikh, Prof. A. Vaidyanathan, and Mr. Anil C. Shah. An Overview of the Workshop In the welcome address, Mr. Anil C. Shah, Chairman, DSC, welcomed participants from the states of Andhra Pradesh (AP), Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh (MP)01 and Maharashtra. He thanked Prof. Kirit Parikh for visiting the field area of DSC on the previous day. Mr. Shah then outlined the issues to be discussed in the workshop. He said that although the country has invested more than rupees one lakh crore in developing canal irrigation, its potential is yet to be realised. This will not only require improving the physical infrastructure, but also put in place the key element of transferring the responsibility for water distribution and maintenance of structures to the primary stakeholders, the farmers and their organisations at various levels in the irrigation system. So far PIM has been introduced in various states as an ideology and as a programme conceived at the top. PIM has, therefore, largely remained an affair between irrigation bureaucracy and farmers. But the participation is not a matter only of setting up an organisation and establishing a formal system; it becomes meaningful when infused with right motivation, right attitude, and appropriate behavior. Then it generates and spreads innovations and converts it into a movement, raising efficiency, equity and sustainability. These areas are the crucial areas in which non-governmental organisations (NGOs) which have rich experience of participatory approach and methodology can make a significant contribution. The National Support Group (NSG) is an initiative taken by some NGOs and academicians who offered to join in the collaborative effort currently restricted between the irrigation bureaucracy and the farmers and their organisations. The NSG started working in 2005 and planned some initial activities for 2005-06. Among them was a Regional Workshop of the western states which have introduced PIM and are at different stages of progress. Secondly, the progress of PIM in AP and MP is of crucial importance because they have taken the initiative to transfer almost all their canals to farmers organisations. Therefore, how PIM is working in these two states is going to have an impact on the future of PIM in the whole country. Keeping this in view, the NSG had entrusted eminent researchers to find out how PIM is working in the field in these states. The scholars will present their findings in the course of the day. The hope is that these findings would be useful not only to the policy makers in AP & MP, but to all the participants. In that case NSG may consider extending such exercise to other states also. Mr. Anil Shah concluded by expressing DSCs gratitude to the Planning Commission for supporting field-based research in PIM and for assisting in organising the Regional Workshop. He also expressed thanks to NABARD, IWMI-TATA, Water Management Forum, and others who have supported these initiatives directly and indirectly. Professor A. Vaidyanathan The next speaker, Prof. Vaidyanathan, recognised efforts made by DSC and other groups to create a forum for civil society which would improve irrigation efficiency. Such initiative is important, even essential, when data relating to irrigation efficiency are fuzzy and less than 40% of water stored in dams is used for crops. With groundwater table depleting, surface water would become a vital source for irrigation. The need is to encourage conjunctive use of water. His view was that the output per unit of water, contrary to theoretical expectations, is not significantly higher for irrigated crops. This is true for all states in India. So any attempt made to improve water use efficiency is important. PIM is a step in this direction but so far it is only confined to use of water at tertiary level, which has to move upward to cover distributary and project levels. Keynote Address: Professor Kirit Parikh Prof. Kirit Parikh, in his keynote speech, stated that agricultural growth curve is flattening. It has been around 1.5% for the last few years. For the economy to grow at 8%, there is a need to push agricultural growth. Moreover, 60-70% of population depends upon agriculture for their livelihood. So with underdeveloped agriculture, the divide between rich and poor is widening. For democracy to function, this gap should be reduced. A lot of effort has been put into creating potential for irrigation: large-scale irrigation projects and canals to bring water to the field have been constructed. But still, water is not available to tail end plots in minors and sub-minors. As water is not supplied on time, it is overused and results in wastage. Illegal lifting of water from the main canal is rampant. Consequently, efforts of planning for water distribution are negated. Moreover, several large-scale projects which were under the Fifth Five-year Plan are still under construction! Out of 135 projects funded under the Accelerated Irrigation Management Programme, only 13 have been completed. Work on the rest of the projects keeps lingering. Prof. Parikh estimated that for a hectare of land irrigated, Rs. 19,000 is spent in the best project and Rs. 3,90,000 in the worst project. Last year the Planning Commission had gathered data and information using remote-sensing techniques but it is yet to receive the final report. He felt that here is the need to gear up to make use of such exercises in decision-making processes. Commenting on the view of the policy makers and engineers that canal irrigation was essentially a technical matter, Prof. Parikh stressed the importance of social aspects in water distribution and management of the canal. It is here that issues relating to growth and equity arise which is of concern to academicians and NGOs. He said that this is true not only for canal irrigation but also for forestry, watershed, and various other schemes. He made a few observations based on his previous days field trip to Dharoi irrigation project in Sabarmati basin. He found that farmers organisations were working on democratic principles and were accountable to the users. Those who violated rules of water distribution, like irrigating twice when entitled for one irrigation, lifting water, etc. were fined. Prof. Parikh found one of their practices particularly inspiring: for the violation of the same rule, a committee member is fined twice as much as an ordinary member of the association. More importantly, transparency and equity are ensured by the Water Users Associations (WUAs). This results in benefit to farmers in the form of increase in area under irrigation and timely availability of water for crops, which, in turn, improve crop yields and incomes. As water supply is ensured by the WUAs, the tendency of the farmer to over irrigate or damage the structure gets restrained leading to reduced wastage of water. It was the effort of the WUAs which got the distributaries cleaned which improved water flow in the canal. This resulted in an increase in the area under irrigation. Prof. Parikh said that enabling environment is needed for WUAs to function properly. From the visit of Dharoi project, he had found out that several WUAs have formed a federation. Even when a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was not signed, the leaders of the proposed federation organised cleaning of the distributary. Such an intervention enlarged area under irrigation as the carrying capacity of canal improved from 70 cusecs to 160 cusecs. After his visit to the field where the State Irrigation Department and the DSC had been working jointly promoting a new model of PIM, Prof. Parikh summed up his impression thus: Gujarat had given to the country AMUL cooperative model that ushered in the White Revolution in India; and now Gujarat can give a model of Blue Revolution of PIM through Dharoi model in North Gujarat. Impact of PIM on Growth and Equity: An Overview Keeping in view the emphasis of the workshop on social aspects in water distribution and management of the canal, Mr. Apoorva Oza, CEO, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme India (AKRSP-I) and Prof. R Parthasarathy, Centre for Environment Planning and Technologies (CEPT) discussed issues of growth and equity. First, two brief cases were presented by the farmers representatives to illustrate how PIM has brought about important changes in the life of tribal farmers. Box 1: Benefits of PIM in Tribal Area of Gujarat Growth and Equity: Farmers Experience of PIM The representatives of farmers organisations from two minor irrigation projects in the tribal areas of Gujarat where AKRSP-I has been promoting PIM were invited to share their experiences of PIM, in view of their success in improving water distribution among their members. Ms. Ramilaben, who had three acres of land, presented her experiences of PIM as a committee member of a WUA formed in 1996. Her income, after PIM, rose manifold: from a meager Rs.8,000 to Rs. 1.65 lakh. She also said that better water management by WUA meant that hybrid seeds were sown instead of the traditional ones. Green fodder was available all the year round, the rental value of the land had increased from Rs. 500 to Rs. 8,000 per acre and the cropping pattern had changed. Due to PIM, animal husbandry also picked up and most of the families had begun to earn an income from dairy activities. Moreover, savings in Self Help Groups rose to Rs. 1.25 lakh. Mr. Bharjibhai Chaudhary was another farmers representative and WUA President who presented the case of his WUA. He owned a little more than an acre of land in the canal command and his yearly income after PIM from this land rose from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 40,000. He stated that the impact of WUA was evident from the increase in the incomes of 290 households which was the result of irrigation, shift from traditional seeds to hybrid seeds, availability of green fodder for the whole year, increased land value from Rs. 15,000 to Rs 75,000 per acre, rise in milk production, spread of animal husbandry that from 100 to 300 households, and enhancement in the skill and knowledge about canal construction and management. Users overcame their hesitation and developed self-confidence. Women participated in WUA activities and the value of leadership was appreciated. Proper water availability after PIM has reduced the rate of migration of the households from 50% to 25%. Impact of PIM on Growth and Equity: Mr Apoorva Oza While supporting the above-mentioned experiences Mr. Oza stated that the current status of PIM in India is discussed with a mixture of optimism, despair, and bewilderment. He said that there is an element of bewilderment because the failure of PIM to scale up without a law appears as an inherent weakness of the concept. However, efficacy in the use of water is evident when one met the farmers like Ramilaben and Bharjibhai who have obviously benefited from PIM. This gives grounds for optimism. In systems where maintenance has been poor, not only water distribution has been a concern, but also the non-availability of water, especially to tail reaches, has given rise to equity issues. Consequently, the justification of PIM rests on improving irrigation efficiency, distribution, and management as well as addressing equity issues. The benefits of irrigation to agriculture and livelihood are well known. Mr. Oza said that rural poverty is affected by several other factors such as access to credit, local governance, and availability of agricultural inputs. Quoting the findings from the paper of Mr. L.K. Joshi when he was Joint Secretary in the Ministry of Water Resources, he observed that only 12% of the land in command areas belonged to large farmers. Mr. Oza concluded that PIM impacts the agricultural economy in two ways: by increasing the agricultural productivity and changing the cropping pattern, or enlarging the area under irrigation and raising cropping intensity. Impact of PIM on Growth and Equity: Prof. R. Parthasarathy Prof. Parthasarathy, in his presentation said that though research findings did not consistently show a positive impact of PIM on productivity, in many cases, there was evidence of an increase in irrigated area, cropping intensity, change in the cropping pattern, and increased access to water by tail-end farmers. The WUA-based analysis of change in productivity suggests that for a majority of farmers in Isar and Kevadi (tribal areas of Gujarat) crop productivity had risen. The farmers with small size of land holdings -- up to 2 acreshad reported the highest increase in crop productivity. Therefore, from livelihood perspective, irrigation management is not only an effective instrument to raise the productivity of the land, but also to enhance equity as greater proportion of small farmers benefit from it. He stated that many studies differentiate between the impact of physical rehabilitation and management transfer. In his view, in India, PIM is a key driver of increased attention to and investment in the physical rehabilitation of canals because the farmers demand a minimum quality of infrastructure before agreeing to take the responsibility of management and distribution of water. Projects are not of the same quality and this may explain varying results from PIM. For example, in the AKRSP (I) studies quoted, Chitravadi scheme had poorer results than Isar or Kevdi minor irrigation schemes in Narmada district because Chitravadi is a part of the larger Karjan Project. Inadequate funds for rehabilitation of the entire Karjan project affected the degree to which the WUA took over the responsibility and delivered services to its members. There is little PIM research focusing on the relationship between the quality of PIM and its performance and hence drawing conclusions about the efficacy of PIM is difficult. Water distribution and management by WUAs has increased area under irrigation, resulted in better rehabilitation, greater cropping intensity, and diversification to commercial crops, increased agricultural productivity, augmented water productivity, and enhanced capacity of the farmers to negotiate with external agencies. It has gone a long way towards increasing water availability to the tail portions of the canal command. As more farmers have their plots in tail end of the command, forming WUA would be of particular benefit to them, as it would increase their productivity. The multiplier effect of irrigation is reported to be 3.15, i.e. 68% of the benefits of irrigation investment go to the regional economy in terms of increased non-farm sector activities. The Bopal Declaration Next Prof. Y.K.Alagh gave an overview of the Bopal Declaration and requested Mr. Anil Shah to make the presentation on the conditions for success for PIM. The decade of the nineties saw changes in the way rural development, particularly the natural resources, was to be managed. Joint Forest Management (1990), Watershed Development (1995), Participatory Irrigation Management (1997), and Swajaldhara (2003) are some of the major programmes formulated by Government of India based on the new, participatory approach. The stakeholders were to participate in the planning, implementation and management of the resource. I In the Tenth Plan, however, there was a severe setback which Mr. Anil Shah has described in his paper The Fading Shine of the Golden Decade. When this paper was presented to Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, Prof. Y. K. Alagh, and others, they encouraged DSC to organise a seminar to register protest against reversal of the healthy initiatives of the nineties. A national level meeting was organised on January 16, 2005 that endorsed the Eight Principles that should guide the policy makers in the formulation and modifications of the schemes of natural resources management. The meeting was attended by important officials, reputed NGO representatives, and eminent academics. Since, it was held in DSCs office at village Bopal outside Ahmedabad, it is referred to as the Bopal Declaration. Mr. Anil Shah presented the eight Principles that were endorsed in the Bopal Declaration. Before elaborating the Principle of participation through community based organizations (CBO) he invited two farmers, a man and a woman, to present experience of their village which had formed a WUA and taken over management of the sub-minors. Ms. Taheraben and Mr. Ishwarbhai Patel, narrated views and experiences of PIM in Dharoi Irrigation Project complementing Mr. Anil Shahs presentation. Box 2: PIM in WUAs of Dharoi Irrigation Project Kesimpa Irrigation Cooperative Ms. Taheraben presented experiences of Kesimpa Irrigation Cooperative. Kesimpa WUA, dominated by Muslim farmers, manages three minors. She reported that no election was held for any position in the executive committee in Kesimpa Irrigation Cooperative. Located in the head-reach region of the distributary, Kesimpa is the first village of the system from where direct irrigation from the canal begins. Initially the farmers belonging to head reaches were not prepared for PIM. However, as over-use of irrigation water had been causing salinity, farmers were finally persuaded to take part in irrigation management to prevent it. A videocassette of the Kiyadar WUA, which has been working successfully for several years, was shown to the Kesimpa villagers. The WUA was formed and registered on April 26, 2000. The MoU was signed in the season of 2001. Its present membership is 118. More than three years ago, joint surveys were carried out on the minors serving the village. The cost of work was estimated to be Rs. 550,000 for one minor & Rs.350,000 for the other two minors. The Repair & Rehabilitation (R & R) work initiated on one minor is halfway through. The rest will be taken up after the completion of rabi cultivation and thereafter the work on other two minors will be carried out. Farmers contributed Rs. 80,000 as peoples contribution. The WUA had been, reportedly, successful in disciplining the farmers of head reaches to use water rationally and therefore it became possible to extend the area under irrigation from 60 ha. to 125 ha. WUA fines members involved in water theft or double watering. The WUA has also been able to reduce the extent of seepage, which, in turn, has helped in raising the water levels in the wells. There are about 60-70 wells in the village irrigating about 60-70 ha of land altogether. Winter cropping pattern is predominated by wheat, which has covered about 80% of the area in the current rabi season. The rest is covered by mustard and cotton. In a normal year, wheat covers 50% of the rabi cultivation. Box 3: PIM in WUAs of Dharoi Irrigation Project Rangpur Irrigation Cooperative Mr. Ishwarbhai Patel presented experiences of the Rangpur Irrigation Cooperative. He stated that this WUA was earlier registered on August 19, 1983 and had distributed water to its members in the kharif and rabi seasons in 1984 and 1985. Water was allocated to the WUA on volumetric basis. The WUA had to charge prescribed water rates. Shortage of funds and absence of any monetary help from the government resulted in discontinuation of the WUA activities. The irrigation department took the management back. In 1996 DSC began motivating farmers of the village for participation in irrigation management and the WUA was revived. In the beginning, head-reach farmers did not show any interest in PIM while tail-end farmers expressed a positive attitude. After three village meetings, all farmers seemed to be convinced. The present membership of the WUA is 220. The WUA wanted to repair the minor on its own. At the end of 1996 and the beginning of 1997, a joint survey was carried out on one minor. All farmers were asked to be in their fields and present their problems. The cost of work was estimated to be Rs. 400,000. Farmers contribution of 10% of the total cost of rehabilitation was raised easily. During 1997, Rs. 350,000 was spent on R & R work on one minor. The WUA has been able to prevent water logging in about 10 ha of land. In 2001, the WUA took up another minor for water distribution and management. On this minor, till date, Rs. 500,000 has been spent on R & R work which is nearly completed. The WUA has a total command area of 562 ha. Before the start of the rabi season of 2001-2002, the WUA members contributed labour worth Rs.10,000 for annual cleaning and upkeep of canal before the release of water. Table 1: Penalty for Double Irrigation Area of double irrigation (ha.) Penalty (Rs.) up to 0.50 151 0.51 - 1.00 251 1.01 1.50 401 1.51 - 2.00 500 2.01 2.50 601 During the second watering of 2001-2002, six to seven farmers tried double irrigation. Three farmers at the tail were deprived of irrigation water. The WUA decided to penalise farmers attempting double irrigation at the rate shown in Table 1. This rate is doubled if the accused is a committee member.  Mr. Anil Shah then presented 8 Principles of Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in the context of PIM. 1. Centrality of Community Based Organisations (CBOs): Constituted by primary stakeholders, CBOs must be at the centre of planning, budgeting, implementation, and management of all natural resource development programmes. The ability to elect its own office bearers and appoint its staff that is authorised and competent to carry out all financial transactions (instead of government officers) is the hallmark of a robust CBO. The CBO should work closely with the Gramsabha in planning, budgeting, and implementing the programme. Mr. Shah stated that the Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) Guidelines of February 2004 (Ministry of Water Resources) has laid down as a pre-condition the setting up of a WUA but the guidelines do not clarify the role, responsibilities, or resources available to the WUA. He suggested that the state irrigation departments might examine the extent to which the WUAs in their respective states are in a position to function as farmer-centred organisations, particularly the position of its secretary and its authority to raise local resources. Table 2: Extent of Deprivation of the Tail EndersStatesExtent of DeprivationGujarat Haryana Karnataka Maharashtra Orissa Tamil Nadu7-37 % 56-84% 40-91% 29-70% 35-72% 24-55%2. Equity: Equity is of critical significance at all stages. Suitable mechanisms and safeguards must be incorporated into the design and execution of the programmes so as to ensure participation of the disadvantaged. Mr. Shah mentioned the study carried out by DSC in November 2003 about tail-enders and other deprived in the canal system that had brought out the extent of deprivation as shown in Table 2. The impact of deprivation was all the more startling as the tail-enders raised low value crops, frequently leaving their land fallow, with the result that the productivity of head-reach farmers was 1.5 to 5 times that of the tail-enders. It was felt that the tail-enders were treated as second-class farmers by the irrigation authorities and as second-class citizens by the local shopkeepers and moneylenders. He stressed that taking care of the deprived of the irrigation system through participatory management was the surest way to reform the whole system. Unless made mandatory, women in general, and even women farmers, are not provided opportunity to work as members of the executive committee. They have little opportunity to present to the WUA their special requirements such as the problem of managing irrigation during night. 3. Decentralisation: Participation of the farmers requires flexibility in norms to suit varying local conditions. The local authorities should have the flexibility. In the CADWM Guidelines there is no indication of ways in which farmers organisations at various levels should be empowered or the ways in which state irrigation department officials at various levels are to be authorised for providing requisite support to farmers organisations. 4. The Importance of Facilitating Agencies: This principle states that rural communities require facilitating agencies that are skilled in motivating and organising local groups to work for a common purpose. Facilitating agencies, preferably competent NGOs, should be selected by the concerned government agency through rigorous and transparent processes. In promoting vibrant WUAs experienced and competent NGOs can play a crucial role. The NGOs are better placed to ensure that WUAs understand the significance of sharing costs of rehabilitation, collecting contribution, and providing better management of water distribution particularly to the tail-enders and other deprived. Keeping these and other roles of the facilitating agency in view, watershed programme of MoRD provides 10% of the project cost as overheads of the NGOs working as facilitating agencies. DSCs experience has been that the NGOs need to be compensated at the rate of Rs.500600 per hectare to enable them to provide software support that covers promotion of WUAs, rehabilitation of the canal system, and water management for three irrigation seasons. 5. Monitoring and Evaluation of the Processes: A participatory, outcome/impact-oriented and user-focused Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E) system should be put in place to obtain concurrent feedback and undertake mid-course corrections in the programme design and implementation systems. At present the Central Government has no scheme of monitoring PIM by independent competent agencies. DSC considers providing feedback to policy makers in charge of PIM so important that it has arranged with established researchers to conduct field studies and provide the feedback to the policy makers in Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh on how PIM is actually functioning in the field - its strengths and weaknesses. There is a need for an empowered committee, preferably constituted at the centre, or by the state government, to commission independent, competent researchers to monitor the working of PIM and provide feedback to the policy makers periodically. 6. Training and Software Support: A structured strategy and operational guidelines have to be developed for training required for the key functionaries of PIM. State governments implementing PIM have to develop a strategy to ensure that competent training organisations provide training to key functionaries in the farmers organisations, irrigation department, and the NGOs in each phase of PIM, viz. pre-launch, during launch, and post-launch. Further, since officers and office-bearers of WUAs change, it is necessary to take periodical, say annual, review to find out how many new functionaries have joined PIM set up and arrange for their training. Even otherwise, refresher courses should be held where the key functionaries review the working of PIM and consider fresh shortcomings and opportunities in the working of canal irrigation. 7. Sustained Momentum of Development: This principle suggests that the facilitating agencies should be mandated and supported to initiate productivity enhancement and value addition. However, the current status of PIM concentrates only on water distribution, and not on other factors such as productivity enhancement and value addition. Rather than introducing traditional extension in a top-down manner, it is important to develop innovative ideas and practices that will enable the farmers to raise substantially the productivity of existing crops, diversify into more remunerative crops, and realise more value for their produce. 8. Organisational Restructuring of Government Agencies: The present structure of PIM in the state administration is unsuitable for sustained policy making and satisfactory policy implementation. There is a need to examine the possibility of a more efficient, productive, and accountable structure at the project level in large irrigation projects. After gaining experience at the project level, restructuring can be considered for the State Irrigation Department: it can be converted into an empowered executive authority that will have the responsibility, accountability, authority, and resources to ensure that various projects under PIM function with efficiency, equity, and sustainability. Part 2: Status of PIM in Selected States: Feedback by Researchers Review of PIM in Andhra Pradesh Dr. K. V. Raju, (Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore), presented his study PIM in Andhra Pradesh: A Quick Review of Seven Years of Experience sponsored by the DSC. The study comprises of forty-four WUAs covering sixteen major irrigation systems, three medium systems, twenty-four minor projects, two anicuts, and one lift irrigation system. In 1997, the WUAs were formed based on hydrological boundaries which in 2003 were reorganised on the basis of the size of the area. It resulted in reduction in the number of WUAs in Telangana and Rayalaseema and increase in their number in Godavari and Krishna deltas. After the reorganisation, tail-enders are represented in territorial committees; now the vice president/president is selected from the tail end. The study was done within the framework of parameters and indicators developed by DSC for evaluating the performance of WUAs. The framework was developed with the consensus of farmers, NGOs, academicians, policy makers, etc. Several indicators were developed for the seven parameters of the four stages of PIM, viz. formation, rehabilitation, water distribution, and management. Depending on the stage in the lifecycle of PIM, the appropriate framework is used. In the case of AP where PIM is into its eighth year, only two stages are relevant, namely, water distribution and management. The findings are presented for the two stages in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3: Water Distribution Stage ParametersIndicatorsParticipation There is no process followed by WUA members in the planning of crops and timely submission of consolidated application on behalf of irrigators.EquityDue to drought in Telangana and Rayalaseema, no WUAs got enough water, except tank-based WUAs. 57% of canal irrigation systems follow warabandhi system In 50% of WUAs visited, farmers felt that water is flowing till tail end due to the activities carried out by WUA. EfficiencyIn Sri Ram Sagar Project (SRSP) and Krishna delta, official data show an increase in acreage as a result of adopting warabandhi system. There is a control over unauthorised lifting of water or its theft since farmers along with the WUA members guard the canal. There are no conflicts over water issues. About 96% of the WUAs do not have measuring devices. 13% of the WUAs themselves tamper with the irrigation system.SustainabilityThere is drought condition for the past three years and hence no activities are carried out in recent years. No WUA had received any grant or fund to carry out works for the last two years (till January 2005). In Warangal region the canal system has been damaged at every single village to fill village tanks. No steps are taken to prevent water logging and salinity. Ground verification proves that the works have been carried out by WUAs. All WUAs visited had carried out work in their respective systems. Political WillIn every single WUA there is political intervention in water distribution. A general complaint of WUAs is that luskar obeys politicians and acts as per their orders. Many tank-based WUAs are funded and supported by local politicians during lean time. In many places WUA members and gram panchayat members belong to two different parties and this hampers unity and therefore the work.ImpactFewer irrigation activities during last three years due to drought. Land prices in tail end also rose in many parts of Telangana due to water reaching the tail end. Table 4: Management Stage ParametersIndicatorsParticipation Very little participation by tenants and women farmers. No efforts to enlist women farmers (who are >5% of the total) as voters. 34% of the total sample WUAs participated in the joint survey and were from SRSP command. The maximum number of times any WUA has met in the previous year was five. 33% of sample WUAs have no evidence to show that the meeting was conducted All physical works are carried out by the WUA and the competent authority. There is no mechanism to seek farmers role or to share information on financial resources. The responsibilities, decision making, and accrual of benefits skewed towards office bearers. Role of Territorial Committees (TC) is marginal and limited to getting their share of work. Tenant farmers have not been involved in any way in the WUA in spite of the provision in the Act for inclusive membership. Participation of farmers in planning and prioritising is almost absent. Neither is there any attempt to mobilise farmers nor any proactive action by farmers themselves.Equity50% of farmers agree that water is reaching the tail enders. Tail end portions are not given priority for rehabilitation.Efficiency13% of visited WUAs get income from local sources, 27% have not received any funds, and either rest of the WUAs responded that they did not have the books of accounts or they did not know about the funds. The funds are being used for repair works or construction works. 30% of the respondents say that the structures are poor and the rest of them say that they have maintained structures well.SustainabilityRole of the TCs has been revised since the elections of 2003 and now all the TC members have equal rights.TransparencyEarlier the role of the WUA president was supreme and TC members were unaware of works carried out by the president but after reorganisation of WUAs in 2003 has resulted in transparency among committee members as tail-end representation is compulsory. 47% of WUAs maintain minutes of the meetings, cash books, farmer details, works done etc. 53% have maintained only cash books, 13% WUAs keep records of area irrigated, etc. ImpactIn most of the places farmers agree that the water has reached tail-end areas and the standard of life of the farmers there has improved considerably. Review of PIM in Madhya Pradesh Prof. K. V. Raju (Institute of Rural Management, Anand) presented the observations from his first visit to MP. The study was similar to the one carried out in AP on the status of PIM. This presentation was based on the preliminary impressions formed by him from the first round of fieldwork. This is to be followed by rigorous data collection from fifty WUAs. He began his presentation by narrating the status of various irrigation schemes in the state of MP. He then outlined the need for the PIM Act, salient features of the Act, the progress made so far, monitoring and evaluation, and grievance redressal mechanism. Since his study is a part of the larger project of the DSC for understanding PIM, it would follow the same structure and methodology as is being followed in the AP study. As the data collection was in the process at the time of the presentation, he made certain observationsand did not give the findings on the various parameters and indicators. His observations were as follows: Large sized WUAs lack social cohesion among its members. WUAs do not have any office building or any other infrastructure of their own which makes it difficult to access office bearers, records, books of accounts, etc. Departmental person is appointed as a secretary of the WUA. The president has little knowledge about the affairs of WUA. The secretary and the president collude with the contractors which results in sub-standard work. Where the president belonged to the tail end, substantial improvements have occurred. Interactions between Water Resource Department (WRD) officials and the WUA functionaries have increased; water availability has become more timely. Devolving responsibilities on WUAs without devolving power has led to frustration and low level of involvement. The Department has still control of various functions and almost literally runs WUAs. He later on analysed the WUAs on the Eight Principles of Bopal Declaration: Centrality of Community Based Organisations (CBOs): WUAs are still the peripheral bodies without convergence with Gramsabha or gram panchayat. They are dependent on the irrigation department even for their day-to-day functioning. Equity: Head, middle and tail-end members representation is somewhat ensured by TCs but still TCs do not address economic, social, and political equity concerns. Decentralisation: Only responsibilities are devolved without adequate delegation of powers to exercise functional or operational autonomy. Importance of Facilitating Agencies: Only four NGOs are active which are associated with very few WUAs as facilitating agencies. These NGOs often receive hostile responses from the WRD. Without a sufficiently large-scale involvement of facilitating agencies, it is difficult to visualise empowered and vibrant WUAs functioning effectively and efficiently. Monitoring and Evaluation: Concurrent monitoring and evaluation of water delivery, maintenance, financial performance, etc. is required and sustainability indicators need to be put in place. Training and Software Inputs: Sharing of information and communications needs to be made mandatory to empower members and create awareness regarding functioning of WUAs. Sustained Momentum for Development: Productivity enhancement and net value addition activities by local groups and/or their federations need to become part of the intervention efforts so that they may result in raising incomes, increasing wealth, and sustain development momentum. Organisational Restructuring: Present bureaucratic structure does not have autonomy and accountability. Lack of capacity building was one of the issues that were discussed at length during the workshop. Suggestions were made to restructure the project by incorporating aspects of capacity building at different tiers. It was thought that results would be evident after a few years. The need for a systematic representation from the head, middle, and tail reaches of the canal network in a WUA committee was emphasised by many participants. Such an attempt, it was believed, would bring about equity in water distribution. The issue related to the size of WUA was also discussed: whether it should be confined to village or hydrological boundaries. Review of PIM in Gujarat Prof. R. Parthasarathy in his paper on Participatory Irrigation Management Programme in Gujarat: Some Special Features presented results of PIM in two major irrigation projects, Ukai Kakrapar and Dharoi. Salient Issues It has been reported that till 2003 over 900 WUAs have been formed in the command area of 1,50,000 ha. in Gujarat. This has resulted in changes in water allocation, distribution, and management in almost all areas served by the WUAs. However, the rehabilitation and repairs (R&R) of canals was found to vary across the sites and the most notable feature in successful completion of R&R work was the presence of an NGO and a committed government official. The PIM programme commenced with an objective of improving the scarce resource and hence its training programmes and capacity building exercises have been geared towards water distribution and not water management. As a result, in head reaches or in areas endowed with relatively more water, neither there is an enabling policy nor do the WUAs have the capacity to handle problems of drainage and water logging. There is thus a huge divergence between the grassroots needs and the policy provisions, at least in the case of managing water resource through PIM in head reaches of large canal command. Bridging this gap is one of the challenges before the PIM programme presently. Perhaps, this is one of the reasons for the slow progress of PIM programme in Ukai. In 2003 there were about forty WUAs in the Dharoi Right Bank Canal Command Area which measures about 48,000 ha. and most of them were located in the middle reaches of the distributaries. The farmers of head and tail reaches were not much interested in PIM for contrasting reasons: head-reach farmers had sufficient access to irrigation water while tail-end farmers did not expect to benefit from PIM. It is in this context that the efforts of the NGOs and the government in successfully repairing canals, facilitating water rotation schedule, and raising the stakes of the farmers has helped. In the subsequent years there was a spurt in the activities of water-users in the other villages due to the demonstration effect. In one of his recent studies Prof. Parthasarathy found that water adequacy, primarily due to savings at head reaches and better information of water schedules, led to enhanced crop yields. In this regard, Dharoi WUAs have reported an increase in crop yields, with two-thirds of them reporting significant increases. In Ukai, however, around one-third of the WUAs have reported moderate increases in yields. WUAs usually hire operators for distribution of water which is supervised by committee members. In Ukai system 41.5% of the sampled WUA hired operators for water distribution whereas in Dharoi 61.5% of the sampled WUA did so. It is encouraging to note that efforts to convey water to the tail portions of the systems were made by carrying out R&R works and by properly maintaining canals and minors in 69.2% of the sampled WUAs in Dharoi system whereas in Ukai only 26.8% of the sampled WUAs carry out R&R. Perhaps, the NGOs presence and contribution made this difference. Poor rate of recovery of water charges has always been a matter of great concern for the irrigation department in almost all irrigation systems. In Ukai 27.3% of the sampled WUAs reported increase in the rate of recovery to more than 50% but no WUA reported 100% recovery whereas in Dharoi system 16.7% of the sampled WUAs reported increase in recovery; to more than 50% and rest 83.3% reported full recovery. Overall participatory management of irrigation has brought about a remarkable change in the situation. Dharoi WUAs have a notable attainment -- most of them have achieved 100% rate of recovery. In Ukai system, more than two-thirds of the WUAs have reported an increase in the rate of recovery, though full recovery is not reported. The other notable feature of PIM in Gujarat is the fact that some of the WUAs have fixed their own water rate that is higher than the departments rate. For example in Dharoi irrigation system the average water rates fixed by WUAs for wheat and mustard were 53% higher than the government rates for the year 2003-04 and 25% for the year 2004-05 whereas in the case of castor the rates were 62% higher in 2003-04 and 35% higher in 2004-05. In addition to financial investment by the State, involvement of NGOs is a necessary condition in organisation building, especially in the early stages of development. NGOs assistance to WUAs in providing technical support and promoting local community participation leads to the development of institutional frameworks as in the case of Dharoi WUAs. This striking feature is revealed when we consider that 69.2% of the sampled WUAs in Dharoi system consider the role played by the facilitating agency very important whereas in Ukai system 34.1% of the sampled WUAs consider so. In Dharoi scheme no WUA has reported implementing agencys contribution as not important whereas in Ukai for about 25% of the WUAs considered the role of implementing agency in the formation of WUA not important. These findings, to an extent, distinguish farmers perception towards the need for hand holding exercise. It is evident that the objects and accomplishments of the programme that PIM has indeed taken roots in Gujarat. Yet, there are three major issues that need to be looked into carefully, viz. rational water supply, financing the PIM programme, and the role of NGOs. It is also evident that institutions at any level involve more than purely individual efforts. They embody some kind of collective action in which the interests, resources, ideas and ideals of many persons are brought together. Institutions serve as channels for collective action. Collective action is reinforced by diffused benefits, legitimacy and shared expectations. Thus, a catalytic process or a "planned intervention" is required. Part 3: Emerging Issues and Recommendations Day 2, January 21, 2006 Mr. Anil Shah stated that the purpose of this workshop was to bring NGOs, farmers, academicians, irrigation department staffs, and policy makers together to throw light on various issues in PIM. To conduct in-depth discussions on the issues, participants were divided into four groups on the basis of states, viz. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. The idea behind the exercise was to tackle some of the issues by learning from experiences of other states. Quoting Prof. Kirit Parikhs observation, Mr. Shah reiterated the need to create enabling environment which would provide incentives for WUAs to distribute water in their own way by deciding rotation of water, water charges, etc. Thus, one important question thrown for discussion was that what constitutes enabling environment. The participants were invited to suggest issues for group discussions. Various issues were identified such as capacity building package, methodology of training programmes, agricultural extension and irrigation, and the relationship between the panchayat and the WUAs. Finally the issues that were discussed were grouped under the following four topics: Capacity Building of WUAs, NGOs, Irrigation and Agriculture Department; Attitude Behaviour Change (ABC); Policies and Procedures including fund releases; and Management of WUAs. After holding discussions within the group, each group presented its views on each of the four issues. Capacity Building and Attitude Behaviour Change All the groups felt that it was important that all the stakeholders involved in irrigation management should be trained to carry out their responsibility efficiently. Presently only the capacity building of WUA is given emphasis, but it is very important that the agency training the WUA such as an NGO and the irrigation department should also have proper orientation. All shared the feeling that the government and the NGOs should be partners in this exercise. The staff of the department should be imparted training in Attitude Behaviour Change; the experienced government officers should also be involved in the training process. The groups felt that NGOs were important as facilitators. They believed that the need was to involve more NGOs to work in PIM. The NGOs themselves should be provided training by the more experienced NGOs. Exposure visits and dissemination of success stories was considered the most important strategy for communication. The Andhra Pradesh group felt that at all levels -- state, district, and project level -- need-based training assessment should be done. Trainings should be largely need-based and should be meant for specific target groups. The Maharashtra group felt that there should be standardisation of the methodology for the development of training modules. Training should be monitored by WALMI from time to time. Training in the form of distance learning can also be explored. The Gujarat group felt that there was a need to supplement the efforts of training by involving other agencies, e.g., Water Resources Engineering Management Institute (WREMI), IRMA, and agricultural universities. From the irrigation department, appropriate staff that has the aptitude for the subject should be selected. Staff exchange programme between the department and NGOs can prove fruitful. Policies and Procedures All the four groups believe that the government should come out with a clear-cut vision statement along with a clear mandate and milestones to make the WUAs autonomous. The government should issue the necessary orders to the departmental officers down the line to make it happen within a stipulated time frame. The changes need to be made at various levels, for instance, at the project level, and at the WUA level. At the project level, re-orientation is required among the line staff with attitudinal changes which can be brought about through training programmes and exposure visits. There should be participatory diagnosis of rehabilitation work for the entire canal. Steps should be taken to ensure transparency and accountability at the WUA level. Technical, financial, managerial, and social capacity building exercises should be conducted for the WUAs. The department with its enabling policies will have to provide handholding support to the WUAs. It should develop the selection criteria for NGOs. It should select competent NGOs which are willing to work in PIM and allow them to perform their facilitative role at all levels. The department should accept the NGOs more readily and work with them in partnership. Funding support should be provided to the NGOs for carrying out capacity building activities and to meet their overhead costs. The WUAs should be clearly told that the NGOs were carrying the mandate of the WRD. Regular monitoring should be facilitated. The Gujarat group felt that Irrigation cooperatives should be allowed to carry out other economic activities such as sale of fertilisers and seeds. The group from Maharashtra felt that the state requires a PIM cell so that it can work towards making the process more participatory and with a bottom-up approach. The MP group suggested a process of positive transition to make a WUA sustainable to achieve the objectives of PIM. They suggested the following hierarchical structure for delegation of responsibility. Policy Level: Water Resources Department (WRD) Irrigation Project Level: WRD local team (Executive Engineer/Sub Divisional Officer) and NGOs WUA Level: WUAs, NGOs, and WRD field staff Issues related to Management of WUAs For the management of WUAs, regular social audit should be conducted and procedures should be made transparent. The groups felt that there should be appropriate resource management, water and financial budgeting and auditing, etc. The Andhra Pradesh group suggested that WUAs should take up micro planning, for example, an annual action plan, a calendar of events, etc. The Maharashtra group suggested that a third party should monitor WUAs. The chairmanship of the WUA should be rotated and should have fixed tenure. The ex-officio member (nominated by the irrigation department) should have no voting right. Part 4: Summing up Summing up Prof. Vaidyanathan stated that initially R&R cost would be high but regular O&M would cut down the costs. This cost can be borne by the farmers through increased user charges. As the actual area irrigated and crops grown are different from what has been prescribed in the plans of large-scale projects, there is a gap between the potential and the actual area under irrigation. He stated that people should not be restricted in cultivating crops but institutional mechanisms should be such that objectives of equity and efficiency are achieved. Mr. Harinarayan (Secretary, Water Resources, Government of India) stated that in many states the revenue department collects cess levied on water. He felt that it should be collected by WUAs and utilised for management of canal irrigation. He raised the issue of conflicting interests of various water users such as the use of canal/tank water for irrigation and for fisheries. Then there is the question of how to apportion operation and maintenance costs of canal service roads between water users and villagers who use them. Though difficult, it has to be done. These examples show the need for clarity in policy and employing sophisticated accounting procedures. He also referred to the need for clarity on cost accounting for the construction of irrigation projects and for their management. There is a need for differentiating the construction staff from the staff for operations and maintenance. So for calculating the price of water, whose salary should be taken into considerations is still being debated. Prof. Alagh had stated that the farmers in Gujarat are under illusion that water scarcity has become a thing of the past with the advent of Narmada waters. He predicted that once Madhya Pradesh starts utilising water, the situation in Gujarat would revert back: there will be scarcity of water. He quoted an observation made in one of the studies that by 2020, Gujarat State would be faced with acute water shortage. Thus, there is a need to use water efficiently. He stated that along with reform measures like formation of WUAs, efforts should be channelised to educate farmers to use water saving devices. He was at a loss to understand why the government shows no urgency for such reforms. Even policy level decisions on the Bopal Declaration failed to meet its goal. He pointed out that this discussion stressed integrated water management problems but failed to see any efforts made in this direction. According to him different departments of the government act as separate entities without understanding the close link between their functions. He pointed out that the emphasis laid on interlinking of the river basins by Prof. Tushaar Shah and Prof. Raju and his stress on Agro-Climatic Regions were at variance with each other. The latter would help to study groundwater and surface water in greater detail. He pointed out that the Bopal Declaration had attempted to integrate ponds, groundwater, and so on. He said that one should ignore the prescribed cropping pattern and plan for water management and distribution systems. He believed that farmers should be left with a range of alternatives that would allow them to decide about the cropping pattern. For this to work there is a need for irrigation department to be accountable to farmers. Information about water supply would go a long way to help farmers in deciding which crops to grow. He stated that too much dependence on CADA would fail to serve its purpose. One should move ahead and think about other methodologies. Mr. Jaynarayan Vyas, a water management expert, stated that water, if properly managed would go a long way to solve the problem of food security. Water, he said is used not only by the agricultural sector; it is important for the dairy industry as well. Animal husbandry has played a primary role, along with agriculture, in providing livelihood to people. If groundwater depletion were not arrested, there would be no way of checking migration from rural to urban areas. This would lead to rise in crimes, epidemics, conflicts, and so on. To make water management more meaningful, interlinking of rivers and construction of large-scale networks is essential. In his opinion, the experience of Gujarat shows that water is used efficiently where PIM is implemented. Similarly, efforts should be stepped up to use water efficiently in areas of Saurashtra and Kachchh which are scarcity-prone. He also stressed the need to accept this maxim and make efforts to organise farmers to form WUAs. Efficient use of surface and groundwater would keep a check on the migration from rural to urban areas. These efforts are especially required for a state like Gujarat, which is a border state. Mr. Vyas mentioned that in the past, engineers treated irrigation projects as construction projects and felt that by building the projects they are obliging users. But now time has changed; the same engineers are talking about involving stakeholders in managing the system. He stressed the accountability of irrigation department towards its users. He appreciated that a dichotomy existed in interpreting water management issues as the subject of water is on the concurrent list. His view is that water should be considered a national resource and efforts should be made to centralise policy formulation in order to solve the problem of water scarcity. Over all the Regional Workshop was a fruitful and meaningful event. The deliberations in the groups and suggestions made in the plenary sessions, if taken seriously, should lead to more effective implementation of PIM. To accomplish it, the state irrigation departments would need to work towards creating enabling environment, opening up its doors to let in NGOs and interested academics to make their contribution in the making of policies and procedures and then in operationalising them. In this, the state irrigation departments can legitimately expect the Ministry of Water Resources to provide leadership. All the players would like to ensure that robust farmers organisations develop. In conclusion, DSC expressed its thanks for the high level of participation by the audience and expectations it generated.  Increase in income was due to change in the crops and variety of seeds and this income also includes the income from animal husbandry.  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